Prevalence and Multi-Domain Determinants of Elevated Blood Lead Levels Among Pregnant Women in Bangladesh: Evidence from the 2025 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

Background: Lead is a cumulative environmental toxicant for which no safe level of exposure has been identified, and pregnant women and their fetuses are particularly vulnerable because lead readily crosses the placenta and can be mobilised from maternal bone stores. Bangladesh conducted its first nationally representative blood lead testing among pregnant women through the 2025 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), but a detailed, multi-domain analysis of the determinants of elevated blood lead level (BLL) among this population has not yet been reported. Methods: We conducted a secondary

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